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EC number: 236-675-5 | CAS number: 13463-67-7
- Life Cycle description
- Uses advised against
- Endpoint summary
- Appearance / physical state / colour
- Melting point / freezing point
- Boiling point
- Density
- Particle size distribution (Granulometry)
- Vapour pressure
- Partition coefficient
- Water solubility
- Solubility in organic solvents / fat solubility
- Surface tension
- Flash point
- Auto flammability
- Flammability
- Explosiveness
- Oxidising properties
- Oxidation reduction potential
- Stability in organic solvents and identity of relevant degradation products
- Storage stability and reactivity towards container material
- Stability: thermal, sunlight, metals
- pH
- Dissociation constant
- Viscosity
- Additional physico-chemical information
- Additional physico-chemical properties of nanomaterials
- Nanomaterial agglomeration / aggregation
- Nanomaterial crystalline phase
- Nanomaterial crystallite and grain size
- Nanomaterial aspect ratio / shape
- Nanomaterial specific surface area
- Nanomaterial Zeta potential
- Nanomaterial surface chemistry
- Nanomaterial dustiness
- Nanomaterial porosity
- Nanomaterial pour density
- Nanomaterial photocatalytic activity
- Nanomaterial radical formation potential
- Nanomaterial catalytic activity
- Endpoint summary
- Stability
- Biodegradation
- Bioaccumulation
- Transport and distribution
- Environmental data
- Additional information on environmental fate and behaviour
- Ecotoxicological Summary
- Aquatic toxicity
- Endpoint summary
- Short-term toxicity to fish
- Long-term toxicity to fish
- Short-term toxicity to aquatic invertebrates
- Long-term toxicity to aquatic invertebrates
- Toxicity to aquatic algae and cyanobacteria
- Toxicity to aquatic plants other than algae
- Toxicity to microorganisms
- Endocrine disrupter testing in aquatic vertebrates – in vivo
- Toxicity to other aquatic organisms
- Sediment toxicity
- Terrestrial toxicity
- Biological effects monitoring
- Biotransformation and kinetics
- Additional ecotoxological information
- Toxicological Summary
- Toxicokinetics, metabolism and distribution
- Acute Toxicity
- Irritation / corrosion
- Sensitisation
- Repeated dose toxicity
- Genetic toxicity
- Carcinogenicity
- Toxicity to reproduction
- Specific investigations
- Exposure related observations in humans
- Toxic effects on livestock and pets
- Additional toxicological data
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Endpoint summary
Administrative data
Description of key information
Micro-and nanosized TiO2 is not acutely and chronically toxic to aquatic organisms. Thus, nano- and microsized TiO2 are not a classified or non-classified acute and chronic hazard to aquatic organisms.
Additional information
Acute toxicity
Short-term toxicity of microsized TiO2:
Acute toxicity data are available for several aquatic fresh- and saltwater species covering three trophic levels (primary producers, primary and secondary consumers). The tables below provide an overview of the effect values (all unbounded) for acute intrinsic toxicity. For microsized TiO2 in freshwater and marine water, the trophic level most sensitive cannot be identified as only unbounded EC/LC50 values are available for fish, daphnids and algae.
Table 1: Overview of acute aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide bulk material in freshwater:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Pimephales promelas, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Danio rerio | mortality | 96 h LC50 | > 100 to > 1,000 (nominal) | Hutton et al. 1992 a-c, Turner et al. 2006, Mahjoubian et al. 2021 |
Oncorhynchus mykiss, Danio rerio | mortality | 14 d LC50 | > 0.87 to > 1.1 (measured) | Boyle et al. 2013, Ramsden et al. 2013 |
Daphnia magna | immobility | 48 h EC50 | > 100 to > 1,000 (nominal) | four studies* |
Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata | growth rate (filtrate) | 72 h EC50 | > 100 (nominal) | Schlich et al., 2015 |
* Haley and Kurnas et al. (1993), Johnson et al. (1986), Wiench et al. (2009), Mendoza & Cerrillo (2016)
Table 2: Overview of acute aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide bulk material in marine water:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Cyprinodon variegatus | mortality | 96 h LC50 | > 10,000 | Thomson et al. 2007 |
Acartia tonsa | mortality | 48 h LC50 | > 10,000 | Thomson et al. 2007 |
Skeletonema costatum | growth rate | 72 h EC50 | > 10,000(nominal) | Hudson et al. (2007) |
Short-term toxicity of nanosized TiO2:
For nanosized TiO2 in freshwater and marine water, the trophic level toxicologically most sensitive can also not be identified as only unbounded EC/LC50 values are available for fish, daphnids, algae and aquatic plants. The tables below provide an overview of the effect values (unbounded) for acute intrinsic toxicity.
The only bounded EC/LC 50 values from single studies relate to effects of dispersed nanosized TiO2 on the mobility of Daphnia magna (48 h EC50: 19.3 mg/L; 48 h EC50: 103.9 mg/L; 48 h LC50: 28.4 mg/L), Ceriodaphnia dubia (48 h EC50: 2.41-2.54 mg/L) and Artemia salina (48 h EC50: 284.8 mg/L), the survival of Hyalella azteca (96 h LC50: 631 mg/L) and the growth rate of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (72 h EC50: 415 -1028 mg/L):
i) observed at test concentrations above the limit test concentration of 100 mg/L defined in OECD 201 and 202 (Artemia salina, Daphnia magna, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata), and/or
ii) that are presumably linked to mechanical effects and not to the intrinsic toxic properties of nanosized TiO2 (Artemia salina, Ceriodaphnia dubia, Daphnia magna, Hyalella azteca).
Non-dissolved TiO2 present in test media has the potential to exert physical effects on test organisms unrelated to toxicity. Since all bounded EC/LC 50 values of dispersed nanosized TiO2 are above the acute hazard classification criteria defined in Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 and observed effects are presumably linked to mechanical effects, it is concluded that nanosized TiO2 is not acutely toxic to aquatic freshwater organisms.
Table 3: Overview of acute aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide nanomaterial in freshwater:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Carassius auratus, Oncorhynchus mykiss | mortality | 96 h LC50 | > 100 (nominal) | Ates et al. 2013, Turner et al. 2006 |
Oncorhynchus mykiss, Danio rerio | mortality | 14 d-LC50 | > 1.0 to > 1.1 (measured) | three studies* |
Danio rerio | embryo mortality, hatching rate | 96 h LC50 | > 100 (nominal) | Clemente et al. 2014 |
D. magna, D. pulex, D. similis, C. dubia | immobility | 48 h EC50 | > 10 to > 1,000 (nominal) | six studies** |
Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata | growth rate | 72 h EC50 | > 50 (nominal) | Nicolas et al. 2015 |
Lemna minor | growth rate | 7 d EC50 | > 100 (nominal) | Schlich, 2019 |
* Federici et al. (2007), Boyle et al.(2013), Ramsden et al. (2013)
** Wiench et al. (2009), Wyrwoll et al. (2014), Zhu et al. (2010), Griffit et al.(2008), Clemente et al. (2014), Mendoza & Cerrillo (2016)
Table 4: Overview of acute aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide nanomaterial in marine water:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Artemia salina | mobility | 48 h EC50 | > 100 | Ates et al. 2013 |
Phytoplankton (multi- species) | growth rate | 96 h NOEC | ≥ 1 (nominal) | Miller et al. 2010 |
Dunaliella tertiolecta | growth rate | 72 h NOEC | ≥10 (nominal) | Morelli et al. 2018 |
Chronic toxicity
Long-term toxicity of microsized TiO2:
Chronic toxicity data are available for several aquatic freshwater species covering three trophic levels and marine algae. The tables below provide an overview of the effect values for chronic intrinsic toxicity. For dispersed microsized TiO2 in freshwater, the trophic level most sensitive cannot be identified as only unbounded NOEC values are available for long-term effects on fish, crustacea and algae.
For microsized TiO2 in marine water, a 72 h NOErC of 5,600 mg/L is available for the alga Skeletonema costatum (Hudson et al. 2007). However, effects were observed at concentrations more than fiftyfold above the acute test limit of 100 mg/L (OECD TG 201) and above the solubility limit of microsized TiO2. Hence, microsized TiO2 is not chronically toxic to aquatic organisms up to the acute OECD test limit of 100 mg/L and up to its solubility limit.
Table 5: Overview of chronic aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide bulk material in freshwater:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Danio rerio | hatching success, time to hatch, larvae length | 6 d NOEC | ≥ 160 (nominal) | Shaw et al. 2016 |
Daphnia magna | reproduction, further chronic endpoints | 21 d NOEC | ≥ 10 (nominal)/ | Campos et al. 2013 |
Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata | growth rate (filtrate) | 72 h NOEC | ≥ 100 (nominal) | Schlich et al., 2015 |
Table 6: Overview of chronic aquatic (intrinsic) toxicity data for titanium dioxide bulk material in marine water:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Skeletonema costatum | growth rate | 72h NOErC | 5,600 (nominal) | Hudson et al. (2007) |
Long-term toxicity of nanosized TiO2:
Chronic toxicity data are available for several aquatic freshwater species covering three trophic levels and marine algae. The tables below provide an overview of the effect values (unbounded) for chronic intrinsic toxicity. The only bounded NOEC/EC10 values from single studies relate to effects of dispersed nanosized TiO2:
i) on the length of Danio rerio (8 d LOEC: 1000 mg/L) observed at test concentrations above the limit test concentration of 100 mg/L defined in OECD 212 (Danio rerio), and
ii) on the growth rate of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (72 h EC10: 2.1 mg/L, nominal; 72 h EC10: 5 -35 mg/L) presumably linked to a removal of phosphate as nutrient from the closed artificial test system and subsequent nutrient deficiency and not to the intrinsic toxic properties of nanosized TiO2 (Nicolas et al. 2015; Hund-Rinke et al. 2016).
The absence of long-term toxicity of nanosized TiO2 to freshwater algae is further confirmed by a 32 d study of Kulacki et al (2013) on biofilms (algal polycultures).
The limited data on the effects in saltwater, i.e. two studies on marine algae, indicate that nanosized TiO2 is not hazardous to marine algae and cyanobacteria up to 10 mg/L (96 h NOEC:≥1 mg/L, Miller et al. 2010; 72 h NOEC:≥10 mg/L, Morelli et al. 2018).
Since all bounded NOEC/EC 10 values of dispersed nanosized TiO2 are more than twofold above the chronic hazard classification criteria defined in Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 and/or observed effects are presumably due to an experimental artefact, it is concluded that nanosized TiO2 is not chronically toxic to aquatic organisms.
Table 7: Overview of chronic aquatic toxicity data for titanium dioxide nanomaterial in freshwater:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value (mg TiO2/L) | Reference |
Danio rerio
| mortality/morphological effects (ELS)
| 8 d NOEC
| ≥ 1000 (nominal)
| Faria et al. 2014
|
Danio rerio
| Hatching success/larvae length
| 6 d NOEC
| ≥ 160 (nominal)
| Shaw et al. 2016
|
Oncorhynchus mykiss
| growth rate
| 28 d NOEC
| ≥ 0.07 (measured)
| Zeumer et al. 2020
|
Daphnia magna
| reproduction and further chronic endpoints | 21 d NOEC
| ≥ 0.17 (nominal) – ≥ 100 (nominal) | three studies**
|
Chironomus riparius*,
| emergence rate/ development rate, reproduction/biomass
| 28 d NOEC
| ≥ 100 (nominal)
| Hund-Rinke et al. 2013 Schaefers & Weil, 2013
|
Polycultures freshwater
| biomass
| 32 d NOEC
| ≥ 1 (nominal)
| Kulacki et al. 2012
|
Lemna minor
| growth rate
| 7 d NOEC
| ≥100 (nominal)
| Schlich, 2019
|
* exposed via the water phase
** Campos et al. 2013, Hartmann et al. 2019, Hund-Rinke et al. 2013
Table 8: Overview of chronic aquatic toxicity data for titanium dioxide nanomaterial in marine water:
Species | Parameter | Endpoint | Value | Reference |
Phytoplankton | growth rate | 96 h NOEC | ≥ 1 | Miller et al. 2010 |
Dunaliella tertiolecta | growth rate | 72 h NOEC | ≥10 (nominal) | Morelli et al. 2018 |
Potential photoactivity:
Nano- and microsized titanium dioxide appears to have a low potential for acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms as described below. However, there are indications that the photoactivity of uncoated TiO2 nanomaterials may lead to an underestimation of the environmental hazard as several studies report much lower effect concentrations of TiO2 in nano- and microsize under illumination. Only uncoated TiO2 materials show photoactivity, as a direct contact between the generated electron hole pair and water, hydroxide ions or oxygen is possible. This allows the formation of reactive oxygen species under illumination with the UV light included in solar radiation. Uncoated nanosized TiO2, however, enters aquatic systems only in ecotoxicologically not relevant concentrations as the majority is removed in sewage treatment plants (STP). Johnson et al. (2011) studied the fate of TiO2-NPs in an activated sewage sludge treatment plant serving over 200,000 people. Apparently, concentrations of Ti in the fraction < 0.45 µm differ significantly between influent and effluent. Whereas the tested unfunctionalized TiO2-NPs do not undergo removal during the primary settlement stage, the greatest decline (ca. 90%) followed the biological stage of activated sludge with mean Ti concentrations in the fraction < 0.45μm in raw sewage influent, following primary settlement and in final effluent of 30.5μg/L; 26.7μg/L; and 3.2μg/L, respectively. Results from a lab-scale sequencing reactor indicate that biological wastewater treatment plants operating with suspended biomass, such as activated sludge, could remove n-TiO2 from wastewater up to 97 ± 1% (Wang et al. 2012). The removal efficiency of STPs was confirmed by Kuhlbusch et al. (2012) who studied the fate of the nanosized TiO2 material P25 (21 nm), stabilized with sodium metahexaphosphate, in a laboratory STP according to OECD 303 A. Kuhlbusch et al. (2012) measured 4% of the initial mass of the applied TiO2 in the overflow after 22 d, mainly determined by particles in the fraction < 0.6 µm. However, results by Kuhlbusch et al. (2012) have to be interpreted carefully since the stabilizing agent may have influenced the fate of P25 in the laboratory sewage treatment plant.
Furthermore, a direct entry of uncoated TiO2 nanomaterials via run-off from facades does not occur in ecotoxicologically relevant concentrations. Al-Kattan et al. (2013) exposed panels covered with paint containing either only microsized TiO2 or a mixture of bulk and nanosized TiO2 to simulated weathering by sunlight and rain in climate chambers. Both paints release limited amounts of materials (including material < 100 nm) into the environment during the study period (113 cycles of 6 hours). Background corrected Ti concentrations of both paints amounted to 1.5 µg/L in the first leachates and decreased further with each leaching event afterwards. The released concentrations stabilized at about 0.7 µg/L after 10 cycles resulting in a release of about 0.007% of the total Ti content of the paints. Measured Ti in the size fraction < 100 nm released from the paint containing nanosized TiO2 was more or less constant throughout the test and amounted to about 0.5 µg/L.
Kaegi et al. (2008) investigated the release of TiO2 from new and aged outdoor paints containing uncharacterised pigment-grade but not nanosized TiO2 particles. Apparently, the size of 85-90% of the total Ti in runoff samples from facades range from 20 to 300 nm without further size separation. Although the presence of incidental TiO2 nanoparticles (< 100 nm) was demonstrated in the runoffs by TEM-EDX analysis, information on the concentration, number or origin of the TiO2 nanoparticles (<100 nm) was not provided. Further shortcomings of the study include that background concentrations were not measured, a background correction was not performed and information on titanium particles in the rain was not provided. Thus, quantitative assessment of the release of nanosized TiO2 particles from new and aged outdoor paints is not possible based on the information published by Kaegi et al. (2008), and this study is not considered reliable.
Coated nanomaterials, such as Al(OH)3 coated TiO2 nanomaterials in sunscreens, are applied in personal care products that enter directly aquatic systems. However, the Al(OH)3 coating prevents photoactivity of the TiO2 core and is not removed by ageing under environmental relevant conditions (Labille et al. 2010, Auffan et al. 2010). Consequently, TiO2 nanomaterials coated with Al(OH)3 are not photoactive in natural environments and consequently are not expected to elicit phototoxic effects to aquatic organisms.
Thus, uncoated TiO2 nanomaterials do not enter directly the aquatic system via run-off from facades at ecotoxicologically relevant concentrations.
Conclusion:
In sum, micro-and nanosized TiO2 is not acutely and chronically toxic to aquatic organisms. Thus, nano- and microsized TiO2 are not a classified or non-classified acute and chronic hazard to aquatic organisms.
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